1. INTRODUCTION:
   

   A beautiful quote of Rabindranath Tagore is that the highest education is that which does not merely give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence (Kumar & Ahmed, p. 1).

   So the highest function of education is to bring about an integrated individual who must become capable of dealing with life in total. From many layers of that education, one layer is higher education. To do the social and economic development of any country higher education plays a significant role. According to all India survey on higher education - pilot report, higher education is of vital importance for the country, as it is a powerful tool to build knowledge- based society of the country (2011, 1:1).Higher education is very important for any country’s economic and social development in the era of knowledge of 21st century.

   1. Higher Education Meaning:

      In “Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects – Higher Education”by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) the term higher education is defined as higher education comprises of all post-secondary education, training and research guidance at education institutions such as universities that are authorized as institutions of higher education by state authorities(2003, 1:1). In India this concept of higher education is divided into three parts: Graduation, post graduation and doctoral degree, apart from these three a diploma programme at graduation and post graduation level are also a part of higher education (Deloitte, 2012, 2:5).

   2. Role of Higher Education:

      In the report of “Higher education: the lessons of experience” it is said that main responsibility of higher education is to equip the individual with the advanced knowledge and skills required for positions of responsibility in government, business and profession (World Bank, 1994: 1). Main function of higher education is to add real value to human resources, and produce wealth creators and leaders in all fields(Narayan, 2005, 1:5).It is said in JICA report that education, research and contribution to society are the three major constituents of higher education (2003, 1:1).According to Ronald Barnett (1992) there are four predominant concepts of higher education (Montry C. B., 2014:1, Mishra, 2006, 1:5): (1) Higher education as the production of qualified human resources –learning of an individual through process (2) Higher education as training for a research career. (3) Higher education as the efficient management of teaching provision. (4) Higher education as a matter of extending life chances.

      All the four descriptions on higher education conclude that the role of higher education has to teach student through appropriate process and advance research; which should be ultimately benefited to the society. So the basic role in higher education is to prepare the student for all fields with recent development, necessary skill set and nurture with correct values which are needed for his entire life. All fields cover job, profession, business even politics, administration and any creative pursuits also.

2. Higher Education: Glorious past

   In the book titled as “Universities in Ancient India”; Dean T. K. N. Menon has mentioned in his editorial/editor’s note:

   The universities of ancient India have a prouder history than that of their counterparts in the ancient western world. The universities of ancient India had also a more impressive teaching and research programrne. The teachers who taught in the hallowed precincts of Takshaiiia, Nalanda and Vikramasila were scholars of high eminence and repute (1924:4).

   The above mentioned paragraph of Mr. Menonindicates that Indian higher education has long history dating back to institutions such as Takshshila, Nalanda, Vallabha and Vikramshila who initiated with a flavor of world class universities in the history of higher education not only in India but at international level. Among them, Nalanda had remarkable features of strict entrance exam pattern for admission (20% admitted from appeared), excellent teacher-student ratio of 1: 7/8 and internationalization from the countries of Mongolia, China, Korea, Tibet and Tokhara. Liberal endowments for boarding-lodging facilities were available from the king Dharmapala in Nalanda University according to Apte (1924, 8-22). On other end, Takshshila had Panini, the greatest grammarian of Sanskrit and Chankya (Kautilya) the minister of King Chandra Gupta Maurya as their alumni in the University. Each teacher was like an institution and so enjoying full autonomy to work. Kings like Maitrak were found not only rich but too generous and were providing ample grants for the Takshshila University as well as for the library of the university (Apte, 1924, 23-43).

3. Institutional Framework of Higher Education

   The current higher education system of India is based on the British system. Higher education in India is the joint responsibility of central government (Ministry of Higher Resource Development) and state government. At present in Indian higher education, there are several types of institutions: universities, colleges, institutions of national importance (prestigious institutions awarded and given that status by Parliament),post graduate institutions and polytechnics (Chakrabarty, 2007:5). Among these only Universities deemed to be universities and institutions of national importance are degree-granting institutions (Agarwal, 2006, 1:6). There are four types of universities in India: private (established through State/Central act), deemed (Declared by central government under section 3 of UGC act, 1956), central (established by a central act) and state (Established through a state/central act by sponsoring body). In total there are 695 universities in India according to the UGC:

   Figure 1: Total No. of Universities in the Country as on 05.02.2014
   
   Source: UGC
4. Growth of Higher Education in India

   It is documented by many scholars that at the time of independence of India, there were 20 Universities and 500 colleges (Sinha, 2008:95, Deloltte, 2012:4, Sharma, 2012:56). In the first convocation of Indian Maritime University, President of India, Pranav Mukharjee said that there is a remarkable expansion of 735 universities and 37,000 colleges in India in comparison of its inception time (Increase enrolment, 2014).These statistics convey that there is a huge quantitative growth in the higher education sector, in universities almost 35 fold increase and colleges have increased by 60 fold. Growth in totality of colleges and universities is shown in the figure 1 and 2 given below with the actual data source from UGC:

   Figure 2: Growth of Universities in India from Independence till 2013-14
   
   Source: UGC
   
   Figure 3: Growth of Colleges in India from Independence till 2011-12
   
   Source: UGC


5. Quality position:

   Global Scenario:

   In fifth international conference on world class universities of 6th November at Shanghai, Pavan Agarwal, advisor, planning commission of India has mentioned that present enablers in Indian higher education are concentration of talent, liberal funding and autonomous in governance but major lacking factor are the culture and competition and there are very few tiny tops like IITs, IIMs, Indian Institute of Sciences, few central and some private institutions(2013:4).This picture indicates that there is a need to develop the culture of new values, traditions and competitive environment among other non-premium colleges and universities of India.

   In case of world class universities or flagship or elite universities (Salmi, 2009:3), mainly there are three important features (Salmi, 2009: 19-20):

   1. Concentration of Talent: World class universities are able to select the best students and attract the most qualified professors and researchers. As said by New School, the Harvard Kennedy School and FETP that in Joint Entrance Exam(JEE) which is conducted for IITs every year 3,00,000 students appear for 5,000 seats, similarly for 1950 seats of IIM 1,95,000 students appear(2010,p. 44) shows a good picture of searching real best talent, but such type of institutions in India are very few and a need to develop many more.

   2. Abundant Resources: Sufficient fund is required for running huge complex and extensive continuous research work in world Class University. IIM Ahmedabd and Calcutta do not have the resources of even one tenths of what universities in US, as said by Shekhar Choudhary (Careers 360, 2014:35).So if the situation of Indian premium institution is like this, about the rest institutions can be understood very well.

   3. Appropriate Governance: This third feature covers overall regulatory framework, the competitive environment, and the degree of academic and managerial autonomy that elite universities enjoy. Even the premium institutions of India IIM and IIT are also unable to achieve excellence, because they are also not entirely free from external interference and official salaries remain uncompetitive and low in comparison of international standards (New School & et.al., 2009:41).These instances suggest adding more proportion of autonomy even though whatever level of freedom they have (Indian universities), if at all they wish to become world class University.

   As a result of missing culture and competition in Indian higher education (Agarwal, 2013:4); the Indian universities struggle a lot in the data of academic ranking of WCU, 2013-14 :

   Table 1: Status of Indian Universities at International Level
   

   ARWU Ranking 2014		THE ranking 2013-14		2013-14 QS World University Ranking
   Rank	World Top 500 Universities	Rank	University	Rank	Institute
   322	Indian Institute of Science, Banglore	239	Panjab University	222	IIT  Delhi
   ARWU –Field: Engineering & Technology / Computer Science		364	IIT Delhi	233	IIT Bombay
   76-100	Indian Institute of Science, Banglore	365	IIT Kanpur	295	IIT Kanpur
   101-150	Indian Institute of Technology Madras	366	IIT Kharagpur	313	IIT Madras
   ARWU – Subject: Physics		367	IIT Roorkee	346	IIT Kahragpur
   151-200	Panjab University			401-410	IIT Roorkee
   ARWU - Subject Chemistry				601-650	IIT Gauhati
   43	Indian Institute of Science, Banglore
   ARWU – Subject: Computer Science
   101-150	IIT Madras
   101-150	Jadavpur University
   150 - 200	IIT Delhi
   150 - 200	Indian Statistical Institute

   Source: ARWU, THE and QS
   
   

   Table 1 shows position of India in three different academic ranking result of 2014, India has not come anywhere even in top 200. IIT Delhi has secured the best place of 222 on behalf of India and many universities have shown noticeable performance in individual subject category. There is a need to improve a lot to have better position at international level by all premium institutions of India.

   It can be observed from the research methodology of international ranking that in all ranking pattern, they emphasize more on research, which is not just a criteria but also given very high weight age in terms of percentage. Research value is 60 %, 30 % and 60 % in ARWU, THE and QS ranking method respectively, which can be seen from the table - 2.As per the data shown in Annual Status of Higher Education (Deloitte, 2013:14) report, in case of India, there were 20,131 Ph.D. degree holders in 2007, whereas 41,464 and 48,112 in Chin and USA respectively, which shows that the trend towards research is disappointing. So research is one major limiting factor in case of Indian higher education, even though Philip Altbach said that Indian institutions say the ranking criteria of WCU might not apply to them (Pathak & Kanwar, 2012). The words of Ashok Thakur, Secretary Higher Education quoted by Pavan Agarwal (2013:3) in his presentation, clear the desired role of educators and researchers in Indian Higher Education:

   “We cannot hide behind that excuse (criteria used by rankings are irrelevant to India’s priorities). We must play the same game as the rest of world is playing. We need not be shy about it.”

   
   Table 2: Comparison of the methodologies for the main international rankings
   

   No.	ARWU ( Shanghai Ranking Consultancy)			THE (Times Higher Education)		QS ( Quacquarelli Symonds)
   1.	Quality of Education	Alumni of an institution winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals	10 %	Learning environment	30 %	Academic Reputation – Based on the global survey of academics	40 %
   		Staff of an institution winning Nobel Prizes and Fields Medals	20 %	Research Influence	30 %	Employer reputation -Based on a global survey of graduate employers	10 %
   2	Highly cited researchers in 21 broad subject categories		20 %	Volume, income & reputation	30 %	Faculty/ student ratio – An indication of commitment to teaching	20 %
   3	Research Output: Papers published in Nature and Science		20 %	International outlook	7.5 %	Citations per faculty- An indication of research impact	20 %
   4	Papers indexed in Science Citation Index-expanded and Social Science Citation Index		20 %	Innovation	2.5 %	International student ratio – Measuring international diversity of the student community	5 %
   5	Per Capita Performance Per capita academic performance of an institution		10 %			International staff  ratio – Measuring international diversity of the academic faculty	5 %

   
   Source: ARWU, THE and QS
   
   

   Another milestone work is shown in “The Global Competitiveness Report” of World Economic Forum with reference to 12 different parameters among 148 countries. From the report, a parameter of Higher education and training with reference to India among 148 countries is summarized below (Klaus S., 2013:217):

   Table 3: Position of India in Higher Education and Training among 148 countries
   
   

   Parameter	Rank of India among 148 countries	Top 3 countries in HE & Training
   		Finland	Singapore	Germany
   Overall ranking in Higher Education & Training	60	1	2	3
   Tertiary education enrollment, gross %	98	2	20	NA
   Quality of the education system	33	2	3	14
   Availability of Research and Training services	47	6	14	2
   Extent of staff training	52	2	6	10
   Country capacity to retain talent	50	2	8	9
   Country capacity to attract talent	54	68	2	20
   University-Industry collaboration  in R & D	47	2	4	9

   
   Source: World Economic Report, 2013
   

   In case of the lead countries in higher education, it is noticed that there enrolment ratio is too high in Finland(No. 2)and Singapore( No. 20), as well as they have excellent quality standards in higher education, which is a very noticeable feature in number one and two position country, i.e. Finland and Singapore respectively(Klaus S.,2013:185,341). Even a good number of training for research, country capacity to retain talent and as specially need base education contributes in the top seeded countries, where India has to travel a long journey to come ahead.

6. Challenges of Higher Education in India:

   Challenges in Indian higher education sector are seen by different scholars and educationalists have seen from many other dimensions.

   In 1998, the world conference on higher education at Paris have highlighted some points like ending of discrimination, merging of research and education, academic freedom, strengthening the cooperation between higher education and industry for future direction, which are equally true for India even after 16 years(Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2003:10).

   The World Bank study has identified the following issues related to the higher education in India (Chakrbarty A., 2007, 3:20) 1. Over-centralization and lack of autonomy and accountability 2. Resource constraints and wastage 3. Poor quality and relevance in many institutions 4. Difficulties in retention of Science and Technology personnel in education 5. Poor technology and infrastructure support 6, Limited access and regional disparity

   Challenges of the demand-supply gap, issues of quality and insufficient research environment are noticeable in India in the view of Dukkipati (2010:2).

   Deputy Governor, RBI, Dr. K.C. Chakrabarty, has highlighted that expenditure on education, gross enrolment pattern, infrastructure facilities, PPP model, student-teacher ratio, quality standards, students studying abroad are the major issues and challenges in Indian Higher Education sector (2011).

   Gupta (2012:19) has presented demand-supply gap, quality education, research and development, faculty shortage as challenges in his opinion.

   In the report of “Understanding India: The future of higher education and opportunities for international cooperation”,it is summarized that the supply-demand gap, the low quality of teaching and learning, constraints on research capacity and innovation and uneven growth and access to opportunity are the significant challenges for Higher Education in India(British Council, 2014:4).

   According to Vineeta Agrawal (2014:124), India is facing low gross enrolment ratio, huge demand supply gap, poor focus on research, status of accreditation, highly exam oriented system, shortage and lack of qualified faculty, financial constraint, issue of quality and employability are the challenges India has to overcome in future.
   In prevailing scenario of higher education, these challenges are adversely affecting the shape of higher education in India:

   6.1. Tremendous demand-supply gap: There is a wide gap in demand- supply gap in higher education (Dukkipati, 2010, Gupta: 2012, British Council, 2014, Agarwal, 2014). The OECD predicts that in 2020, 200 million of the world’s 25-34 year olds will be university graduates and 40% of these will be from China and India, representing a huge proportion of the global talent pool (British Council, 2014:10). This is the demand side of the coin, where as supply picture is shows very insufficient flow. At present India has 700 universities and 38000 colleges are there (Agarwal, 2013:2). As mentioned in 12th five year plan, government plans to have 30 % enrolment ratio in 2020 and according to this projection, India would need another 800 universities and 40000 colleges by 2020(British Council, 2014:13).The above given statistics on a piece of paper needs a long debate, particularly when an amount spends for higher education is very low.

   6.2. Weak gross enrolment ratio: Growth of enrolment ratio in higher education was 0.40 % in 1950 and 19.4 % in 2012-13 as mentioned in Deloitte report (2013:9-10) and projected in 2013-14 is also 22.5 % (E.Y., 2013: 58).This data at a glance shows a positive progress, but in comparison of other country like 26 % in China and 36 % in Brazil, India’s GER in higher education is very low (British Council, 2014:4). Dr. Mukharjee said it is compared to USA and Germany it is very low (Increase Enrolment, 2014). Exceptionally high efforts are needed to make gross enrollment ratio better.

   6.3. Student- Teacher Ratio: A way back in the history of India, teacher – student ratio was 1:7/8 (Apte, 1924, 3:36) and today in India it is 1:24, where as in Sweden, USA, China and Brazil is 9.5, 13.6, 16.8 and 22.2respectively in 2009-10,which is shown below in Figure 2 (Deloitte, 2013:13). This situation takes place because on one side there is chronic shortage of teachers and pressures to admit more students on other side (British Council, 2014:16). In the elite programmes at Yale and Johns Hopkins University student teacher ratio is 2.87 and 3.28 respectively in 2014, which shows concerned for quality in Higher Education (World Class, 2014:42).

   6.4. Faculty Crisis: As Brad show has remarked in 2007 that IIT campus suffers from shortage of 900 faculty members and just in IIT Delhi has 29 % positions are vacant (Salmi, 2009:47).Indian IITs campus also find faculty short fall because of the issues like weak pay packages and no performance base reward system (Altbach & Salmi, 2011, p.- 190). A report of IANS have also given the same voice of 35 % vacant post of teachers in Central Universities, 25 % in IIMs, 33.33 % in NITs, and other 35.1 % in other central education institutions of MHRD(Gupta, 2012:19).To sort out this very serious issue of faculty crisis as well as to reduce student teacher ratio, as seen above, attractive financial offer, better working environment and a campaign to join teaching profession for good brain may give some outcome in future to solve both the issues.

   6.5. Low quality of teaching: Poor quality content, outdated and rigid curricula are the indicators of low quality in higher education teaching (British Council, 2014:4). To have better position of India in a global market, continuous updated syllabi and pedagogy will be the need of the knowledge base 21st century. Many university graduates do not have even elementary knowledge, or conceptual understanding, or problem-solving skills in their own discipline (Narayan J., 2005:6).Because of not employable skills for market after graduation only 10 % and in case of post graduation just 25 % engineering graduate students are employable (Ramesh G., 2013: 28).Gandhi has said that mushroom growth of universities and colleges has been the main cause of lack of quality of Higher Education institutions (2013:133). So there is a need to do have hard rules in policy and need base approval; while granting a new college or a university. Teaching load per faculty in IIM – A is 200 hours per year, whereas 120 hours is an international average (FICCI, 2013:71), needs to be reducing the teaching load to offer better quality.

   6.6. Research and Development: In the study of David A. King found that 31 countries accounted for 97.5% of the world‘s scientific citations (2004), the same situation is reflected even today in the words of Kale of Central University of Gujarat - “We still have not evolved a culture of publications”. Culture of research in flagship programmes of Indian and WCU is compared in Table 3 with reference to annual publications and publications/faculty(World Class: 2014, 44-46) gives a very unpleasant picture. It is said by Altbach and Salmi that adequate fund with no fluctuation is needed for developing successful research universities (2011:25) and a good number of fund attract the top professors and researchers, as it is there in the elite universities of United States (Salmi, 2009,24).Research plans in India lack vision and Indian researchers and scientists are not knowledge in matters such as intellectual property rights (IPR) that could help them to earn greater revenues(Basil V., 2013:4).Table 3 reveal a fact about India that Indian top most work is too less in comparison of the elite universities of world with lots of research practices.

   Table 3: Comparison of Annual publications in India and world class research institutions
   

   University - Abroad	Annual Publications	Publications /Faculty	University - India	Annual Publications	Publications /Faculty
   1. Harvard University	24,075	11.5	1.IISciences, Bangalore	1493	3.07
   2. University of Oxford	10404	6.5	2. All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi	1115	2.24
   3. University of Cambridge	9298	5.8	3University of Hyderabad	948	3.38

   
   Source: World Class University in Career 360, January 2014.

   6.7. Accreditation: According to the accreditation status prepared on 21st February out of 37,000 colleges and 700 universities is only 2910 colleges and 96 universities (NAAC, 2014). Number statistic is given here at a glance:

   Figure 4: Universities Accreditation Status as on 21 – 2 – 2014
   
   Source: NAAC

   Out of 659 universities, only 96 universities are NAAC accredited (53 with A grade and 43 with B grade); whereas127universitiesare eligible but have not yet applied for accreditation and out of 37000 colleges, just 2910 colleges are accredited as shown in the report of 21-2-2014 of NAAC. An important remark of Mr. Agraval in his article “India’s new accreditation law”, he said that there is a need to establish the link between ac¬creditation and government funding and student transfer in place of stiff penalties for non-accreditation(2010, 17). All the technical institutions are not coming in the purview of NAAC, either should be added or an alternate arrangement can be initiated to increase the proportion level of NAAC accreditation of universities and colleges.

7. Financial Constraint:

   The National Education Policy 1968 and 1986 have recommended to spare 6 % of GDP education, even in 2010-11 the amount was just 3.8 % - budgeted expenditure (Deloitte, 2013:17).There is a need of huge fund to invest into Higher education, MHRD can take initiative to start a campaign like “Harvard Campaign” which is a fine effort of Harvard School. That campaign started to support a wide range of academic activities, including new approaches to teaching and learning, and advancing discovery across Schools disciplines (Harvard, 2013).

8. Initiatives of Government: In 12th Five year plan upcoming initiatives of government for higher education to face the challenges are given below:
   By 2017, India’s higher education system can be expected to be better aligned to industry and global practices, to be more inclusive and transparent, and supported by enabling regulations.
   
   (a) For students:
   * Access to accurate and updated information on HEIs and courses on a centralized portal for parents and prospective students,
   *Fewer admission tests,
   * Increased student financial aid support from the Government,
   * More international students
   
   (b) In academia and research:
   * Research-focused institutions such as innovation universities,
   * Teaching institutions offering a wide range of programmes, including innovative interdisciplinary ones,
   * Vocational / Employment-focused institutions such as community colleges and polytechnics, with entry and exit options from mainstream higher education for students
   * Increased international linkages for research, faculty development, joint and dual degrees, etc.
   * Institutions will enjoy greater academic and operational autonomy
   * Greater corporate participation
   
   Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) - Higher Education Summit 2013 have given the nuts and bolts of transformation for prospective 2030(E.Y., 2013, p.8-12):
   • Planned expansion of a differentiated university system
   • The transition to a leader centered paradigm of education
   • Intensive use of technology
   • Reforms in governance
   
   Over and above, FICCI’s have a bold and inspirational vision for 2030(E.Y., 2013, p.74):
   - Reach the target of 71 million enrollment, i.e., increase 40 million additional capacity
   - Achieve the GER of 50 % in 2030, in comparison of 22.5 % in 2013.
   - Have 20 Indian universities in the top 200 in the world, which are only 4 today
   - Among the top 5 countries in terms of research papers and citations
   - Among the top 5 countries in terms of number of PHDs.
   - Faculty-student ratio of 1:10/15.
   - Produce 5-6 laureates across categories from the Indian higher education system.
   - Create regional hub for higher education, attracting global learners from all over the world
   

9. Recommendations:
   In present scenario of higher education and have a good journey in higher education, following recommendations can made:
   * Need base approval of colleges and programmes
   * Quality infrastructure and sufficient skilled manpower should be the priority for granting new institute after assessing the need of a programme.
   * Educational entrepreneurs must be entertained with sufficient fund to cope up with a good environment to study particularly for research work and other infrastructure requirement
   * Business houses can be provided tax benefit, which can be a cause of attraction
   *On large scale seminars, conferences should be conducted as a mandatory part of teaching for student and teachers both to provide technical advancement and qualitative thinking
   * A significant proportion of research should be introduced as a part of syllabi at under graduate and post graduate level
   * Periodical knowledge enhancement of even under graduate students through senior faculty of post graduate level
   * Talented student should be encouraged to be a part of teaching with handsome pay packages from their inception stage of employment
   * Autonomy to design syllabus with necessary accountability can become a part in governance
   * Malpractices in academics must be penalized from the initial stage to set the lesson for others
   * Role of alumni can be made stronger for generation of more funding and development purpose
   * Continuous liaisoning work between industry and institute should take place for syllabi revision for the better outcome of employability
   

Conclusion:

In summary of “Quality Assurance in Higher Education: An Introduction” report, it is said that at one end there is high demand for access to higher education and at the other the quality is questioned (NAAC, June 2006, 10:78). For today’s scenario, this is perfectly correct one liner for higher education in India. It’s true that higher education in India has done a remarkable growth in terms of quantitative terms, but from the view point of present growing population it is not at all sufficient. To change this picture, a huge financial investment will be needed from all the fronts, namely: government efforts, private sector involvement, change in the pace of public-private partnership projects (PPP format) and even a need to attract foreign investment. To fill the gap of teaching people in Indian flagship/elite campuses more attractive offers and special campaigns for fresher to be a part of teaching for other requirement can play significant role in increasing the strength of teachers. Imbalance growth of institutions and universities must be analyzed properly and MHRD has to play its proper role now onwards to maintain equity in future. With quantity Growth, there is a strong need is introduce strong policy guidelines for grant in aid, government, private colleges and all types of universities with its proper execution without any bias and political interference. Continuous conferences, seminars, and workshop to train the teachers should be arranged, atmosphere of research should be developed, which should be linked with their financial rise after qualitative assessment of their work by competent authorities. Quality education is a long term journey, for instance, Indian Institute of Technology and the National University of Singapore have taken five decades to reach at their present level (Altbach&Salmi, 2011, 11:333 ).

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